Description

CliffsNotes Anatomy & Physiology Quick Review, 2nd Edition (CliffsNotes Quick Review) 2nd Edition

Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Why You Need Th is Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
How to Use Th is Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Hundreds of Practice Questions Online! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Chapter 1: Anatomy and Chemistry basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
What Is Anatomy and Physiology? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Atoms, Molecules, Ions, and Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Inorganic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Organic Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Chemical Reactions in Metabolic Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Chapter 2: The Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Th e Cell and Its Membrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Cell Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Movement of Substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Cell Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Chapter 3: Tissues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Epithelial Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Connective Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
Nervous Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Muscle Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Chapter 4: The Integumentary System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Th e Skin and Its Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Th e Epidermis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
Th e Dermis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
Th e Hypodermis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
Accessory Organs of the Skin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Chapter 5: Bones And Skeletal Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Functions of Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Types of Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
Bone Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
Bone Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
Bone Growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
Bone Homeostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
Surface Features of Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
iv CliffsNotes Anatomy & Physiology Quick Review
Chapter 6: The Skeletal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Organization of the Skeleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
Skull: Cranium and Facial Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Hyoid Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
Vertebral Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
Th orax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
Pectoral Girdle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
Upper Limb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
Pelvic Girdle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
Lower Limb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
Chapter 7: Articulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Classifying Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
Chapter 8: Muscle Tissue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Types of Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
Connective Tissue Associated with Muscle Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
Structure of Skeletal Muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
Muscle Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
Muscle metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
Structure of Cardiac and Smooth Muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
Chapter 9: The Muscular System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
Skeletal Muscle Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
Names of Skeletal Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
Muscle Size and Arrangement of Muscle Fascicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
Major Skeletal Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
Chapter 10: Nervous Tissue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
Neurons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
Neuroglia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
Myelination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
Transmission of Nerve Impulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
Th e Synapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
Chapter 11: The Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
Nervous System Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
Nervous System Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
Th e Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
Th e Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150
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Th e Meninges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
Th e Blood-Brain Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
Cranial Nerves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
Th e Spinal Cord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154
Spinal Nerves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157
Refl exes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
Th e Autonomic Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
Chapter 12: The Sensory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167
Sensory Receptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167
Th e Somatic Senses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168
Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
Hearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176
Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
Smell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180
Taste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180
Chapter 13: The Endocrine System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
Hormones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
Th e Hypothalamus and Pituitary Glands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
Endocrine Organs and Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192
Antagonistic Hormones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
Chapter 14: The Cardiovascular System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
Th e Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
Th e Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
Blood Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201
Hemostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203
Blood Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
Circulatory Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206
Th e Heart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206
Cardiac Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211
Cardiac Muscle Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212
Electrocardiogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213
Th e Cardiac Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
Cardiac Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
Blood Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
Blood Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220
Control of Blood Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221
Blood Vessels of the Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223
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Chapter 15: The Lymphatic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227
Lymphatic System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227
Lymphatic Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228
Lymphoid Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
Lymphatic Tissues and Organs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
Chapter 16: The Immune System And Other Body Defenses. . . . . . .237
Protecting Your Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237
Nonspecifi c Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238
Nonspecifi c Defenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238
Specifi c Defense (Th e Immune System) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
Major Histocompatibility Complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
Lymphocytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
Antibodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
Costimulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244
Humoral and Cell-Mediated Immune Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244
Supplements to the Immune Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245
Chapter 17: The Respiratory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247
Function of the Respiratory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248
Structure of the Respiratory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248
Lungs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253
Mechanics of Breathing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253
Lung Volumes and Capacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254
Gas Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255
Gas Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .256
Control of Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258
Chapter 18: The Digestive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261
Function of the Digestive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261
Structure of the Digestive Tract Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .263
Digestive Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .264
Th e Mouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265
Th e Pharynx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
Th e Esophagus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
Deglutition (Swallowing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
Th e Stomach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268
Th e Small Intestine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
Large Intestine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273
Th e Pancreas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274
Th e Liver and Gallbladder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275
Regulation of Digestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .276
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Chapter 19: The Urinary System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281
Anatomy of the Kidneys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .282
Regulation of Urine Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292
Ureters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
Urinary Bladder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
Urethra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
Chapter 20: The Reproductive System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .297
What Is Reproduction? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .297
Th e Male Reproductive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .297
Th e Female Reproduction System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .304
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
The Resource Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349

Chapter 1
ANATOMY AND CHEMISTRY
BASICS
Chapter Check-In
❑ Understanding the basics of anatomy
❑ Noting the basic chemical constituents that help form matter
❑ Listing the types of bonds that form between two atoms
❑ Understanding the difference between inorganic and organic compounds
❑ Describing the four classes of organic molecules
❑ Finding out how a chemical reaction occurs in a biological system
After you know the basic terms of anatomy but before studying the
structure and function of the body, you need to have a basic knowledge
of chemistry that will be pertinent to your studies. Some of the chemistry
presented in this chapter may not be new to you. In fact, the organic
molecules of carbohydrates, lipids (such as fats, cholesterol, and steroids),
and proteins are the staples of a healthy diet and lifestyle. Learning these
basic chemical components is essential for future studies in physiology,
nutrition, and many other fields of scientific interest.
What Is Anatomy and Physiology?
Anatomy is the study of the structure and relationship between body
parts. Physiology is the study of the function of body parts and the body
as a whole. Some specializations within each of these sciences follow:
4 CliffsNotes Anatomy & Physiology Quick Review
■ Gross (macroscopic) anatomy is the study of body parts visible to the
naked eye, such as the heart or bones.
■ Histology is the study of tissues at the microscopic level.
■ Cytology is the study of cells at the microscopic level.
■ Neurophysiology is the study of how the nervous system functions.
Organizations of living systems
Living systems can be defined from various perspectives, from the broad
(looking at the entire earth) to the minute (individual atoms). Each perspective
provides information about how or why a living system functions:
■ At the chemical level, atoms, molecules (combinations of atoms), and
the chemical bonds between atoms provide the framework upon
which all living activity is based.
■ The cell is the smallest unit of life. Organelles within the cell are
specialized bodies performing specific cellular functions. Cells themselves
may be specialized. Thus, there are nerve cells, bone cells, and
muscle cells.
■ A tissue is a group of similar cells performing a common function.
Muscle tissue, for example, consists of muscle cells.
■ An organ is a group of different kinds of tissues working together to
perform a particular activity. The heart is an organ composed of
muscle, nervous, connective, and epithelial tissues.
■ An organ system is two or more organs working together to accomplish
a particular task. The digestive system, for example, involves
the coordinated activities of many organs, including the mouth,
stomach, small and large intestines, pancreas, and liver.
■ An organism is a system possessing the characteristics of living
things—the ability to obtain and process energy, the ability to
respond to environmental changes, and the ability to reproduce.
Homeostasis
A characteristic of all living systems is homeostasis, or the maintenance
of stable, internal conditions within specific limits. In many cases, stable
conditions are maintained by negative feedback.
Chapter 1: Anatomy and Chemistry Basics 5
In negative feedback, a sensing mechanism (a receptor) detects a change
in conditions beyond specific limits. A control center, or integrator (often
the brain), evaluates the change and activates a second mechanism (an
effector) to correct the condition; for example, cells that either remove or
add glucose to the blood in an effort to maintain homeostasis are effectors.
Conditions are constantly monitored by receptors and evaluated by
the control center. When the control center determines that conditions
have returned to normal, corrective action is discontinued. Thus, in negative
feedback, the variant condition is canceled, or negated, so that conditions
are returned to normal.
The regulation of glucose concentration in the blood illustrates how
homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback. After a meal, the absorption
of glucose (a sugar) from the digestive tract increases the amount of
glucose in the blood. In response, specialized cells in the pancreas (alpha
cells) secrete the hormone insulin, which circulates through the blood and
stimulates liver and muscle cells to absorb the glucose. Once blood glucose
levels return to normal, insulin secretion stops. Later, perhaps after heavy
exercise, blood glucose levels may drop because muscle cells absorb glucose
from the blood and use it as a source of energy for muscle contraction. In
response to falling blood glucose levels, another group of specialized pancreatic
cells (beta cells) secretes a second hormone, glucagon. Glucagon
stimulates the liver to release its stored glucose into the blood. When blood
glucose levels return to normal, glucagon secretion stops.
Compare this with positive feedback, in which an action intensifies a
condition so that it is driven farther beyond normal limits. Such positive
feedback is uncommon but does occur during blood clotting, childbirth
(labor contractions), lactation (where milk production increases in
response to an increase in nursing), and sexual orgasm.
Anatomic terminology
In order to accurately identify areas of the body, clearly defined anatomical
terms are used. These terms refer to the body in the anatomical
position—standing erect, facing forward, arms down at the side, with the
palms turned forward. In this position, the following apply:
6 CliffsNotes Anatomy & Physiology Quick Review
■ Directional terms are used to describe the relative position of one
body part to another. These terms are listed in Table 1-1.
■ Body planes and sections are used to describe how the body or an
organ is divided into two parts:
■ Sagittal planes divide a body or organ vertically into right and left
parts. If the right and left parts are equal, the plane is a midsagittal
plane; if they’re unequal, the plane is a parasagittal plane.
■ A frontal (coronal) plane divides the body or organ vertically into
front (anterior) and rear (posterior) parts.
■ A horizontal (transverse) plane divides the body or organ horizontally
into top (superior) and bottom (inferior) parts. This is also
known as a cross-section.
■ Body cavities are enclosed areas that house organs. These cavities are
organized into two groups:
■ The posterior/dorsal body cavity includes the cranial cavity (which
contains the brain) and the vertebral cavity (which contains the
spinal cord).
■ The anterior/ventral body cavity includes the thoracic cavity
(which contains the lungs, each in its own pleural cavity, and the
heart, in the pericardial cavity) and the abdominopelvic cavity
(which contains the digestive organs in the abdominal cavity and
the bladder and reproductive organs in the pelvic cavity).
■ Regional terms identify specific areas of the body. In some cases, a
descriptive word is used to identify the location. For example, the
axial region refers to the main axis of the body—the head, neck, and
trunk. The appendicular region refers to the appendages—the arms
and legs. Other regional terms use a body part to identify a particular
region of the body. For example, the nasal region refers to the nose.
Chapter 1: Anatomy and Chemistry Basics 7
Table 1-1 Basic Anatomy Terms
Term Definition Example
Superior Above another structure. The heart is superior to the
stomach.
Inferior Below another structure. The stomach is inferior to the
heart.
Anterior/ventral Toward the front of the body. The navel is anterior to the spine.
Posterior/dorsal Toward the back of the body. The spine is posterior to the navel.
Medial Toward the midline of the
body. (The midline divides
the body into equal right
and left sides.)
The nose is medial to the eyes.
Lateral Away from the midline of
the body (or toward the
side of the body).
The ears are lateral to the nose.
Ipsilateral On the same side of
the body.
The spleen and descending colon
are ipsilateral.
Contralateral On opposite sides of
the body.
The ascending and descending
portions of the colon are
contralateral.
Intermediate Between two structures. The knee is intermediate between
the upper leg and lower leg.
Proximal Closer to the point of
attachment of a limb.
The elbow is proximal to the wrist.
Distal Farther from the point of
attachment of a limb.
The foot is distal to the knee.
Superficial Toward the surface of
the body.
The skin is superficial to
the muscle.
Deep Away from the surface of
the body.
The skeleton is deep to the skin.
8 CliffsNotes Anatomy & Physiology Quick Review
Atoms, Molecules, Ions, and Bonds
Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass. Matter consists of elements
that possess unique physical and chemical properties. Elements are
represented by chemical symbols of one or two letters, such as C (carbon),
Ca (calcium), H (hydrogen), O (oxygen), N (nitrogen), and P (phosphorus).
The smallest quantity of an element that still possesses the characteristics
of that element is an atom. Atoms chemically bond together to form
molecules, and the composition of a molecule is given by its chemical formula
(O2, H2O, C6H12O6). When the atoms in a molecule are different,
the molecule is a compound (H2O and C6H12O6, but not O2).
The atoms of the elements consist of a nucleus containing positively charged
protons and neutrally charged neutrons. Negatively charged electrons are
arranged outside the nucleus. The atoms of each element differ by their number
of protons, neutrons, and electrons. For example, hydrogen has one proton,
one electron, and no neutrons, while carbon has six protons, six neutrons,
and six electrons. The number and arrangement of electrons of an atom
determine the kinds of chemical bonds that it forms and how it reacts with
other atoms to form molecules. There are three kinds of chemical bonds:
■ Ionic bonds form between two atoms when one or more electrons are
completely transferred from one atom to the other. The atom that
gains electrons has an overall negative charge, and the atom that
donates electrons has an overall positive charge. Because of their
positive or negative charge, these atoms are ions. The attraction of
the positive ion to the negative ion constitutes the ionic bond.
Sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) form ions (Na+ and Cl–), which
attract one another to form the ionic bond in a sodium chloride
(NaCl) molecule. A plus or minus sign following a chemical symbol
indicates an ion with a positive or negative charge, which results
from the loss or gain of one or more electrons, respectively. Numbers
preceding the charges indicate ions whose charges are greater
than one (Ca2+, PO4
3–).
■ Covalent bonds form when electrons are shared between atoms. That
is, neither atom completely retains possession of the electrons (as
happens with atoms that form ionic bonds). A single covalent bond
occurs when two electrons are shared (one from each atom). A double
or triple covalent bond is formed when four or six electrons are
shared, respectively. When the two atoms sharing electrons are
exactly the same, as in a molecule of oxygen gas (two oxygen atoms
to form O2), the electrons are shared equally, and the bond is a
Chapter 1: Anatomy and Chemistry Basics 9
nonpolar covalent bond. When the atoms are different, such as in
a molecule of water (H2O), the larger nucleus of the oxygen atom
exerts a stronger pull on the shared electrons than does the single
proton that makes up either hydrogen nucleus. In this case, a polar
covalent bond is formed because the unequal distribution of the
electrons creates areas within the molecule that have either a negative
or positive charge (or pole), as shown in Figure 1-1.
■ Hydrogen bonds are weak bonds that form between the partially
positively charged hydrogen atom in one covalently bonded molecule
and the partially negatively charged area of another covalently
bonded molecule. An individual water molecule develops a partially
positively charged end and a partially negatively charged end; see
Figure 1-1(a). Hydrogen bonds form between adjacent water molecules.
Since the atoms in water form a polar covalent bond, the
positive area in H2O around the hydrogen proton attracts the negative
areas in an adjacent H2O molecule. This attraction forms the
hydrogen bond; see Figure 1-1(b).
Figure 1-1 Two examples of chemical bonds.
(b) Hydrogen Bonding Between
Water Molecules
(a) A Water Molecule Showing
Polarity Created by
Covalent Bonds
oxygen
nucleus
(large nucleus)
attraction
Hydrogen
nucleus
(small nucleus)
(–) (–)
(+) (+)
H H
(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-) (-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
H H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
Inorganic Compounds
Inorganic compounds are typically compounds without carbon atoms.
H2O, O2, and NaCl are examples of inorganic compounds.
10 CliffsNotes Anatomy & Physiology Quick Review
Water is the most abundant substance in the body. Its abundance is due
partly to its unique chemical properties created by the influence of its
hydrogen bonds. These properties include the following:
■ Solvency. Water is an excellent solvent. Ionic substances are soluble
in water (they dissolve) because the poles of the polar water molecules
pull them apart, forming ions. Polar covalent substances are
also water-soluble because they share the same hydrogen bonding as
water shares with itself. For this reason, polar covalent substances are
called hydrophilic (water loving). Because they lack charged poles,
nonpolar covalent substances do not dissolve in water and are called
hydrophobic (water fearing).
■ Cohesion. Because water molecules are held together by hydrogen
bonds, water molecules have a high degree of cohesion, or the ability
to stick together. As a result, water has strong surface tension. This
tension, in turn, gives water strong capillary action, allowing water
to creep up narrow tubing. These qualities contribute to the movement
of water through capillaries.
■ Stability. The temperature of water is stable. You must add a relatively
large amount of energy to warm (and boil) it and remove a
large amount of energy to cool (and freeze) it. So, when sweat evaporates
from your forehead, a large amount of heat is taken with it and
you are cooled.
Organic Molecules
Organic compounds are those that have carbon atoms. In living systems,
large organic molecules, called macromolecules, can consist of hundreds
or thousands of atoms. Most macromolecules are polymers, molecules
that consist of a single unit (monomer) repeated many times.
Four of carbon’s six electrons are available to form bonds with other
atoms. Thus, you will always see four lines connecting a carbon atom to
other atoms, each line representing a pair of shared electrons (one electron
from carbon and one from another atom). Complex molecules can
be formed by stringing carbon atoms together in a straight line or by connecting
carbons together to form rings. The presence of nitrogen, oxygen,
and other atoms adds variety to these carbon molecules.
Four important classes of organic molecules—carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,
and nucleic acids—are discussed in the following sections.
Chapter 1: Anatomy and Chemistry Basics 11
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are classified into three groups according to the number
of sugar (or saccharide) molecules present:
■ A monosaccharide is the simplest kind of carbohydrate. It is a single
sugar molecule, such as a fructose or glucose (Figure 1-2). Sugar
molecules have the formula (CH2O)n, where n is any number from
3 to 8. For glucose, n is 6, and its formula is C6H12O6. The formula
for fructose is also C6H12O6, but as you can see in Figure 1-2, the
placement of the carbon atoms is different. Very small changes in
the position of certain atoms, such as those that distinguish glucose
and fructose, can dramatically change the chemistry of a molecule.
■ A disaccharide consists of two linked sugar molecules. Glucose and
fructose, for example, link to form sucrose (see Figure 1-2).
■ A polysaccharide consists of a series of connected monosaccharides.
Thus, a polysaccharide is a polymer because it consists of repeating
units of monosaccharide. Starch is a polysaccharide made up of a
thousand or more glucose molecules and is used in plants for
energy storage. A similar polysaccharide, glycogen, is used in animals
for the same purpose.
Figure 1-2 The molecular structure of several carbohydrates.
glucose
CH2OH H
OH CH2OH
OH H
NO
H HO
CH2OH
CH2OH
H
OH H
NO
H HO
CH2OH
OH
H
OH
H
H OH
OH H
H
O
sucrose
fructose
CH2OH
OH
H
O
H
H OH
OH H
H
O
12 CliffsNotes Anatomy & Physiology Quick Review
Lipids
Lipids are a class of substances that are insoluble in water (and other polar
solvents), but are soluble in nonpolar substances (such as ether or chloroform).
There are three major groups of lipids:
■ Triglycerides include fats, oils, and waxes. They consist of three fatty
acids bonded to a glycerol molecule (Figure 1-3). Fatty acids are
hydrocarbons (chains of covalently bonded carbons and hydrogens)
with a carboxyl group (–COOH) at one end of the chain. A saturated
fatty acid has a single covalent bond between each pair of carbon
atoms, and each carbon has two hydrogens bonded to it. You
can remember this fact by thinking that each carbon is “saturated”
with hydrogen. An unsaturated fatty acid occurs when a double
covalent bond replaces a single covalent bond and two hydrogen
atoms (Figure 1-3). Polyunsaturated fatty acids have many of these
double bonds.
Figure 1-3 The molecular structure of a triglyceride.
A Triglyceride
saturated
fatty acids
unsaturated
fatty acids
glycerol + 3 fatty acids = triglyceride
O C
H
C
H
C
H
H H
C
O H
C H
H
H
C
H
C
H
C
H
H H H
C
H
H
C
H
C
H
C
H
H H H
C
H
H
C
H
C
H
C
H
H H H
C
H
H
O C
H
C
H
C
H
H H
C
O H
C H
H
H
C
H
C
H
C
H
H H H
C
H
H
C
H
C
H
C
H
H H H
C
H
H
C
H
C
H
C
H
H H H
O C
H
C
C
C
C
H
H
H
H
C
H
H H
H
H
C
O H
C H
H
C C
H
C
H
H H H
C
H
C C
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
■ Phospholipids look just like lipids except that one of the fatty acid
chains is replaced by a phosphate (–P04
3–) group (Figure 1-4). Additional
chemical groups (indicated by R in Figure 1-4) are usually
attached to the phosphate group. Since the fatty acid “tails” of phospholipids
are nonpolar and hydrophobic and the glycerol and phosphate
“heads” are polar and hydrophilic, phospholipids are often
found oriented in sandwichlike formations with the hydrophobic
heads oriented toward the outside. Such formations of phospholipids
provide the structural foundation of cell membranes.
Chapter 1: Anatomy and Chemistry Basics 13
Figure 1-4 The molecular structure of a phospholipid.
A Phospholipid
O C
H
C
H
C
H
H H
C
O H
C H
H
H
C
H
C
H
C
H
H H H
C
H
H
C
H
C
H
C
H
H H H
C
H
H
C
H
C
H
C
H
H H H
C
H
H
O C
H
C
H
C
H
H H
C
O H
C H
H
H
C
H
C
H
C
H
H H H
C
H
H
C
H
C
H
C
H
H H H
C
H
H
C
H
C
H
C
H
H H H
O O R
C
C
C
H
H
H
H
H
P
OO
■ Steroids are characterized by a backbone of four linked carbon rings
(Figure 1-5). Examples of steroids include cholesterol (a component
of cell membranes) and certain hormones, including testosterone
and estrogen.
Figure 1-5 Examples of steroids.
steroid backbone
testosterone cholesterol
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH3
H
HC
HC CH3
OH
OH
14 CliffsNotes Anatomy & Physiology Quick Review
Proteins
Proteins represent a class of molecules that have varied functions. Eggs,
muscles, antibodies, silk, fingernails, and many hormones are partially or
entirely proteins. Although the functions of proteins are diverse, their
structures are similar. All proteins are polymers of amino acids; that is,
they consist of a chain of amino acids covalently bonded. The bonds
between the amino acids are called peptide bonds, and the chain is a
polypeptide, or peptide. One protein differs from another by the number
and arrangement of the 20 different amino acids. Each amino acid consists
of a central carbon bonded to an amine group (–NH2), a carboxyl
group (–COOH), and a hydrogen atom (Figure 1-6). The fourth bond
of the central carbon is shown with the letter R, which indicates an atom
or group of atoms that varies from one kind of amino acid to another. For
the simplest amino acid, glycine, the R is a hydrogen atom. For serine, R
is CH2OH. For other amino acids, R may contain sulfur (as in cysteine)
or a carbon ring (as in phenylalanine).
Figure 1-6 Examples of amino acids.
amino acid
(general formula)
R
H O
H2N C C OH
serine
CH2
H O
H2N OH
OH
C C
cysteine
CH2
H O
H2N OH
S
H
C C
glycine
H
H O
H2N C C OH
phenylalanine
CH2
H O
H2N C C OH
Chapter 1: Anatomy and Chemistry Basics 15
There are four levels that describe the structure of a protein:
■ The primary structure of a protein describes the order of amino
acids. Using three letters to represent each amino acid, the primary
structure for the protein antidiuretic hormone (ADH) can be written
as cys-tyr-glu-asn-cys-pro-arg-gly.
■ The secondary structure of a protein is a three-dimensional shape
that results from hydrogen bonding between amino acids. The
bonding produces a spiral (alpha helix) or a folded plane that looks
much like the pleats on a skirt (beta pleated sheet).
■ The tertiary structure of a protein includes additional threedimensional
shaping that results from interaction among R groups.
For example, hydrophobic R groups tend to clump toward the
inside of the protein, while hydrophilic R groups clump toward the
outside of the protein. Additional three-dimensional shaping
occurs when the amino acid cysteine bonds to another cysteine
across a disulfide bond. This causes the protein to twist around the
bond (Figure 1-7).
Figure 1-7 Disulfide bonds can dictate a protein’s structure.
gly leu cys phe asn cys try
gly
phe
his
ser phe cys his val leu cys ser
S
S
S
S
■ The quaternary structure describes a protein that is assembled from
two or more separate peptide chains. The protein hemoglobin, for
example, consists of four peptide chains that are held together by
hydrogen bonding, interactions among R groups, and disulfide bonds.
16 CliffsNotes Anatomy & Physiology Quick Review
Nucleic acids
The genetic information of a cell is stored in molecules of deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA). The DNA, in turn, passes its genetic instructions to ribonucleic
acid (RNA) for directing various metabolic activities of the cell.
DNA is a polymer of nucleotides (Figure 1-8). A DNA molecule consists
of three parts—a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar called deoxyribose,
and a phosphate group. There are four DNA nucleotides, each with one
of the four nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine).
The first letter of each of these four bases is often used to symbolize the
respective nucleotide (A for adenine nucleotide, for example).
Figure 1-8 The molecular structure of nucleotides.
nucleotide adenine guanine
uracil cytosine thymine
O
sugar
nitrogenous
P base i
NH2
N
N
N
N
H
H
H H2N N
N
N
H
N
H
H
O
N
H H
H
N
H
O
O
N
H CH3
H
N
H
O
O
N
H
H
N
H
NH2
O
Figure 1-9 shows how two strands of nucleotides, paired by weak hydrogen
bonds between the bases, form a double-stranded DNA. When
bonded in this way, DNA forms a two-stranded spiral, or double helix.
Note that adenine always bonds with thymine and cytosine always bonds
with guanine.
Chapter 1: Anatomy and Chemistry Basics 17
RNA differs from DNA in the following ways:
■ The sugar in the nucleotides that make an RNA molecule is ribose,
not deoxyribose as it is in DNA.
■ The thymine nucleotide does not occur in RNA. It is replaced by
uracil. When pairing of bases occurs in RNA, uracil (instead of thymine)
pairs with adenine.
■ RNA is usually single-stranded and does not form a double helix as
does DNA.
Figure 1-9 Two-dimensional illustrations of the structure of DNA.
thymine
P
guanine
P
adenine
P
cytosine
P
guanine
P
thymine
P
guanine
P
adenine
P
cytosine
P
guanine
P
adenine
P
cytosine
P
thymine
P
guanine
P
cytosine
P
DNA
(single-stranded)
DNA
(double-stranded)
18 CliffsNotes Anatomy & Physiology Quick Review
Chemical Reactions in
Metabolic Processes
In order for a chemical reaction to take place, the reacting molecules (or
atoms) must first collide and then have sufficient energy (activation
energy) to trigger the formation of new bonds. Although many reactions
can occur spontaneously, the presence of a catalyst accelerates the rate of
the reaction because it lowers the activation energy required for the reaction
to take place. A catalyst is any substance that accelerates a reaction
but does not undergo a chemical change itself. Since the catalyst is not
changed by the reaction, it can be used over and over again.
Chemical reactions that occur in biological systems are referred to as
metabolism. Metabolism includes the breakdown of substances (catabolism),
the formation of new products (synthesis or anabolism), or the
transferring of energy from one substance to another. Metabolic processes
have the following characteristics in common:
■ Enzymes act as catalysts for metabolic reactions. Enzymes are proteins
that are specific for particular reactions. The standard suffix for enzymes
is “ase,” so it is easy to identify enzymes that use this ending (although
some do not). The substance on which the enzyme acts is called the
substrate. For example, the enzyme amylase catalyzes the breakdown of
the substrate amylose (starch) to produce the product glucose.
The induced-fit model describes how enzymes work. Within the protein
(the enzyme), there is an active site with which the reactants
readily interact because of the shape, polarity, or other characteristics
of the active site. The interaction of the reactants (substrate) and the
enzyme causes the enzyme to change shape. The new position places
the substrate molecules in a position favorable to their reaction and
accelerates the formation of the product.
■ Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a common source of activation
energy for metabolic reactions. In Figure 1-10, the wavy lines
between the last two phosphate groups of the ATP molecule indicate
high-energy bonds. When ATP supplies energy to a reaction, it is
usually the energy in the last bond that is delivered to the reaction.
In the process of giving up this energy, the last phosphate bond is
broken and the ATP molecule is converted to ADP (adenosine
diphosphate) and a phosphate group (indicated by Pi). In contrast,
new ATP molecules are assembled by phosphorylation when ADP
combines with a phosphate group using energy obtained from some
energy-rich molecule (like glucose).
Chapter 1: Anatomy and Chemistry Basics 19
Figure 1-10 The high-energy bonds of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
CH2
H H
OH OH
NO
H
O O
O
OH
ribose
adenine
phosphates C C
C C
O ~ P
O
OO-
P
O
OP
~
C
C
C
N
C
N
N
C
N
H
NH2
H
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
■ Cofactors are nonprotein molecules that assist enzymes. A holoenzyme
is the union of the cofactor and the enzyme (called an apoenzyme
when part of a holoenzyme). If cofactors are organic, they are
called coenzymes and usually function to donate or accept some
component of a reaction, often electrons. Some vitamins are coenzymes
or components of coenzymes. Inorganic cofactors are often
metal ions, such as Fe++.
Chapter Check-Out
Q&A
1. In metabolism, the breakdown of substances is called ______.
2. Which of the following protein structures describes only the amino
acid sequence rather than its shape?
a. Primary structure
b. Secondary structure
c. Tertiary structure
20 CliffsNotes Anatomy & Physiology Quick Review
3. Which of the following is true of RNA?
a. Is composed of a nitrogen base, a six-carbon sugar, and a phosphate
group
b. Does not utilize deoxyribose as its sugar
c. Is often double-stranded
d. Has thymine, adenosine, cytosine, and uracil as its nucleotides
4. True or False: Phospholipids are composed of a glycerol molecule
and three fatty acids.
5. When a substrate binds to an enzyme’s active site, this interaction
causes the enzyme to change shape. This example of how an enzyme
works is called the ______ model.
Answers: 1. catabolism, 2. a, 3. b, 4. F, 5. induced-fit